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Biomolecules
A living system grows, sustains and reproduces itself. The most amazing thing about a living system is that it is composed of non-living atoms and molecules. The pursuit of knowledge of what goes on chemically within a living system falls in the domain of biochemistry. Living systems are made up of various complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc. Proteins and carbohydrates are essential constituents of our food. These biomolecules interact with each other and constitute the molecular logic of life processes. In addition, some simple molecules like vitamins and mineral salts also play an important role in the functions of organisms. Structures and functions of some of these biomolecules are discussed in this Unit.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are primarily produced by plants and form a very large group of naturally occurring organic compounds. Some common examples of carbohydrates are cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc. Most of them have a general formula, Cx(H2O)y, and were considered as hydrates of carbon from where the name carbohydrate was derived. For example, the molecular formula of glucose (C6H12O6) fits into this general formula, C6(H2O)6. But all the compounds which fit into this formula may not be classified as carbohydrates. For example acetic acid (CH3COOH) fits into this general formula, C2(H2O)2 but is not a carbohydrate. Similarly, rhamnose, C6H12O5 is a carbohydrate but does not fit in this definition. A large number of their reactions have shown that they contain specific functional groups. Chemically, the carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce such units on hydrolysis. Some of the carbohydrates, which are sweet in taste, are also called sugars. The most common sugar, used in our homes is named as sucrose whereas the sugar present in milk is known as lactose. Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar).
Classification of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis.
They have been broadly divided into following three groups.
(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide.
About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature.
Some common examples are glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are called oligosaccharides.
They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, tetrasaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide on hydrolysis.
Amongst these the most common are disaccharides.
The two monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide may be same or different.
For example, one molecule of sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose whereas maltose gives two molecules of only glucose.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on hydrolysis are called polysaccharides.
Some common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, hence they are also called non-sugars.
The carbohydrates may also be classified as either reducing or nonreducing sugars.
All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars.
All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are reducing sugars.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are further classified on the basis of number of carbon atoms and the functional group present in them.
If a monosaccharide contains an aldehyde group, it is known as an aldose and if it contains a keto group, it is known as a ketose.
Number of carbon atoms constituting the monosaccharide is also introduced in the name as is evident from the examples given in Table 14.1
Glucose
Glucose occurs freely in nature as well as in the combined form.
It is present in sweet fruits and honey.
Ripe grapes also contain glucose in large amounts.
It is prepared as follows:
Preparation of Glucose
1.
From sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dilute HCl or H2SO4 in alcoholic solution, glucose and fructose are obtained in equal amounts.
2.
From starch: Commercially glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under pressure.
Structure of Glucose
Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose.
It is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch, cellulose.
It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth.
It was assigned the structure given below on the basis of the following evidences:
1.
Its molecular formula was found to be C6H12O6.
2.
On prolonged heating with HI, it forms n-hexane, suggesting that all the six carbon atoms are linked in a straight chain.
3.
Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form an oxime and adds a molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin.
These reactions confirm the presence of a carbonyl group (>C = O) in glucose.
4.
Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water.
This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.
5.
Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five –OH groups.
Since it exists as a stable compound, five –OH groups should be attached to different carbon atoms.
6.
On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid.
This indicates the presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group in glucose.
The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any compound indicate the relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer of a compound with respect to configuration of some other compound, configuration of which is known. In the case of carbohydrates, this refers to their relation with a particular isomer of glyceraldehyde. Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric forms as shown below.
(+) Isomer of glyceraldehyde has ‘D’ configuration. It means that when its structural formula is written on paper following specific conventions which you will study in higher classes, the –OH group lies on right hand side in the structure. All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to D (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have Dconfiguration whereas those which can be correlated to ‘L’ (–) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have L—configuration. In L (–) isomer –OH group is on left hand side as you can see in the structure. For assigning the configuration of monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon atom (as shown below) which is compared. As in (+) glucose, —OH on the lowest asymmetric carbon is on the right side which is comparable to (+) glyceraldehyde, so (+) glucose is assigned D-configuration. Other asymmetric carbon atoms of glucose are not considered for this comparison. Also, the structure of glucose and glyceraldehyde is written in a way that most oxidised carbon (in this case –CHO)is at the top.
Cyclic Structure of Glucose
The structure (I) of glucose explained most of its properties but the following reactions and facts could not be explained by this structure.1. Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff’s test and it does not form the hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
2. The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free —CHO group.
3. Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as a and b. The a-form of glucose (m.p. 419 K) is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while the b-form (m.p. 423 K) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and saturated aqueous solution at 371 K.
This behaviour could not be explained by the open chain structure (I) for glucose. It was proposed that one of the —OH groups may add to the —CHO group and form a cyclic hemiacetal structure. It was found that glucose forms a six-membered ring in which —OH at C-5 is involved in ring formation. This explains the absence of CHO group and also existence of glucose in two forms as shown below. These two cyclic forms exist in equilibrium with open chain structure.
The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C1, called anomeric carbon (the aldehyde carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., a-form and b-form, are called anomers. The six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (a– or b–), in analogy with pyran. Pyran is a cyclic organic compound with one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is more correctly represented by Haworth structure as given below.
NCERT Class 12 Books Chemistry Chapter 14- Biomolecules- PDF Download
Unit 14: Biomolecules
अध्याय 14: जैव-अणु
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Unit 14: Biomolecules
अध्याय 14: जैव-अणु
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